The object illustrated above is known as a Roman dodecahedron, or, more precisely, a Gallo-Roman dodecahedron. A dodecahedron (plural dodecahedra or dodecahedrons) is a geometric solid built of twelve flat pentagons; Gallo-Roman ones are apple-sized hollow bronze objects made and used by the Gallo-Roman culture, known to the Romans as the Gauls. The dodecahedra were lost or purposely buried by the Gauls between about 200 and 400 CE. Gaul was then part of the Roman empire, and many of the dodecahedra were made during the 3rd century CE when the Roman empire was in crisis, as emperors found it difficult to maintain control of their vast holdings.

Distribution

During the crisis of the 3rd century CE, the Roman empire splintered into several short-term sub-empires, including the Gallic Empire. Doll91939, CC 4.0
During the crisis of the 3rd century CE, the Roman empire splintered into several short-term sub-empires, including the Gallic Empire. Doll91939, CC 4.0

Gallo-Roman dodecahedra have been found mostly within the northwestern provinces of the Roman empire, regions which were home to Celtic cultural heritage. Austrian classicist Michael Guggenberger maintains a database of dodecahedra, including as of this writing 129 of them, and he reports that of the hollow dodecahedra found in archaeological contexts, 90% come from those areas claimed by the Gallic Empire, a brief (260-274 CE) period in which Roman commanders were able to claim control over a large chunk of western Europe. Seventy percent of the objects have been found in what is today France and Germany, and 20% are from the United Kingdom. However, to date, none have been found the Iberian peninsula or the northern fringes of Italy: in fact, as of yet, none at all have been recovered within the Roman home regions in Italy at all. (Guggenberger & Leach 2025)

Form of the Dodecahedron

Gallo-Roman dodecahedron, provenance unknown, said to be from Lyon. 78 mm. Musée gallo-romain de Fourvière à Lyon. Gloumouth1, CC 3.0
Gallo-Roman dodecahedron, provenance unknown, said to be from Lyon. 78 mm. Musée gallo-romain de Fourvière à Lyon. Gloumouth1, CC 3.0

According to Guggenberger's data, of the 129 hollow Gallo-Roman dodecahedra found to date, only a very few are from known locations: most are reported by collectors without specific information about where they came from, their provenience. Of those with provenience, contexts include cities, towns, burials, middens, hoards, rivers; some are associated with military people, others with civilians (Guggenberger & Leach 2025).

There is some variation in size and decoration, but the defining basic shape is a regular-faced convex polyhedron with 12 pentagonal faces, 30 edges, and 20 vertices. Each vertice connecting the faces together has a little knob attached after the initial casting. Each face is a flat pentagon with a round opening in the center. The most common type has perfectly round holes cut into the centers of ten of the faces. The other two holes were made as part of the casting process and are larger and not as perfectly round as the other ten. Commonly, two to three circles of various sizes are etched around the post-production holes. The circular holes on different objects and indeed the same object vary in diameters from .06-4 centimeters (.02-1.6 inches). Hollow dodecahedra typically weigh between 365 and 580 grams (12.9-20.5 ounces); the largest outlier weighs 1,000 gms (35.3 oz). Diameters without the knobs vary from 4 to about 20 cm (1.6-3.9 in) (statistics from Guggenberger & Leach 2025).

Lost Wax Process

Gallo-Roman dodecahedra were made of bronze using the lost-wax process, a metal-working method invented 4,000 years earlier. Briefly,
  • Make a wax sculpture of your intended object;
  • Coat the sculpture with a thick layer of clay with an opening on the top;
  • Fire the clay-coated object in a pottery kiln, thereby melting the wax and creating a mold of the object in the ceramic;
  • Pour molten metal into the mold;
  • After the mold has cooled, break it to reveal the completed object.
The lost-wax process was invented some 6,000 years ago, initially using gold or copper, and it was a technique readily available to the 3rd century CE dodecahedra makers. No extraterrestrials required (Rose 2023).

Possible Functions

There are at least fifty different proposed theories of what hollow dodecahedra were used for, many of which are intriguing but none completely satisfying: there is no use-wear on any of them. Proposals include a mace head for weaponry; a measuring device such as a range finder, calibration gauge, or astronomical measuring; a craftsman's masterpiece; a calendar (12 faces = 12 months or 12 zodiac signs); a toy; a place to hold your knitting wrapped around the vertice nodes; or a candle holder for different sized candles.

However, the primary shape of the dodecahedron is one of five Platonic solids, and there are multiple Roman texts from the 1-4th centuries CE that refer to the Druids and their Gaulish communities as following the beliefs of Plato and Pythagoras. Now known as "Neo-Platonism," this set of beliefs was the dominant philosophical ideology of the period, for Romans, Egyptians, and Gaulish alike, providing a comprehensive way to understand the universe and human roles within it. Scholars such as Guggenberger and his associate Stephen Leach suggest that these objects were of cosmological significance to the Gauls and their Druid leaders. Specifically, the dodecahedra may represent the Platonic concept of a "receptacle of all becoming." (Guggenberger & Leach 2025, Wildberg 2021)

Plato and the Five Elements

Dungeons & Dragon dice in the shape of the five Platonic Solids. Starting on the left hand side is tetrahedron (four triangular faces and representing fire in its purest form), cube (six square faces for earth), octahedron (eight triangular faces for air or ether), dodecahedron (12 pentagonal faces for the universe), and isocahedron (20 triangular faces for water). Woody Thrower, CC 2.0
Dungeons & Dragon dice in the shape of the five Platonic Solids. Starting on the left hand side is tetrahedron (four triangular faces and representing fire in its purest form), cube (six square faces for earth), octahedron (eight triangular faces for air), dodecahedron (12 pentagonal faces for the cosmos or ether), and isocahedron (20 triangular faces for water). Woody Thrower, CC 2.0

The world, according to Plato's Timaeus (written about 360 BCE), is made up of four elements, all of which are copies made from perfect forms, each a geometric solid: earth (devolved from a cube), fire (from a tetrahedron), water (isocahedron), and air (octahedron). A fifth element encapsulates all the other shapes and represents the basic shape of the universe itself, a dodecahedron, the fifth known geometric regular solid. Geometrically, the five Platonic solids are the only five possible convex regular solids built of faces that are all the same size and shape. (Artmann 1993, Guggenberger & Leach 2025).

A shape of great cosmological significance, the dodecahedron was considered a crucible for the process of making sensible forms from everything in the universe. It was the receptacle of being, the Neo-Platonists said, through which everything needed to pass to get to earth.

Philosophy and the Dodecahedron

The first reported discovery of a Gallo-Roman dodecahedron was in 1739, found in a coin hoard near Aston, Hertfordshire, England. The significant connection of the Gallo-Roman dodecahedrons to Greek philosophy was recognized nearly 200 years later. In 1911, French archaeologist Salomon Reinach (1858-1932) hypothesized that the dodecahedrons were the material representation of the symbols of the Pythagoreans, followers of the Greek philosopher Pythagoras (570–c. 495 BCE). French archaeologist Louis Malleret (1901-1970) discovered dodecahedral beads made from gold at the Funan culture site of Oc Eo (2nd-7th century CE) in Vietnam. Comparing these gold beads to the larger Mediterranean bronze versions, and noting the connection between Druidism and Pythagoreaism, Malleret argued that the use of dodecahedral forms might reflect the transmission of philosophical, magical or astronomical ideas (Malleret 1961).

Oddly enough, despite the many Roman writings from the period which have come down to us, there is no specific mention of these objects in any of them. There are, however, several texts that hint at an inspiration for them from ancient Greek philosophy, texts including those written by Roman Neo-Platonists recounted in a 2025 article by Guggenberger and Leach.

Who were the Gallo-Romans?

Stone head from Mšecké Žehrovice (Rakovník district, Czech Republic) found in 1943. Made of cretaceous limestone (marl). La Tène culture. Probably the head of a Druid, perhaps to honor the prominent ancestor of the local community. It was deposited in the pit (as a ritual funeral) about 100 BC. Displayed in The Celts, an exhibition in the National Museum in Prague. CC 4.0, Zde
Stone head from Mšecké Žehrovice (Rakovník district, Czech Republic) found in 1943. Made of cretaceous limestone (marl). La Tène culture. Probably the head of a Druid, perhaps to honor the prominent ancestor of the local community. It was deposited in the pit (as a ritual funeral) about 100 BC. Displayed in The Celts, an exhibition in the National Museum in Prague. CC 4.0, Zde

The people who made, used, and were buried with these objects are called by archaeologists Gallo-Roman. They were, essentially, cultural and physical descendants of earlier Gauls who were archaeologically roughly equivalent to La Tène, an Iron Age culture of villagers conquered by the Roman Julius Caesar in 51 BCE. After Caesar conquered Gaul, the residents by and large adopted a synthesis of Gaulish and Roman living patterns, not completely embracing the Romans or completely ditching La Tène. For example, instead of replacing their set of Gaulish deities with a Roman counterparts, they paired them (Aldhouse-Green 2021).

According to several Roman writers, communities of Gauls were led by Druids, individuals considered mysterious, arcane, disturbing and "other." Early in their association with Rome, Druids were revered as sophisticated philosophers and natural scientists; but as the Roman empire began to wane in the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE, Druids came to be seen as savage, bloodthirsty priests. Astonishingly, Julius Caesar (100-44 BCE) had a close personal friend who was a Druid. (Aldhouse-Green 2021)

Romans and Druids

Gallo-Roman dodecahedron fragment, 2rd century, Musée de l'Arles antique. Rama, public domain
Gallo-Roman dodecahedron fragment, 2rd century, Musée de l'Arles antique. Rama, public domain

In 60 BCE, Diviciacus, a Gaulish ruler of the powerful Aedui tribe in Burgundy, came to the Roman Senate to ask for help against his Roman neighbors. Diviacus was a Druid, and he became a close friend of Julius Caesar. A handful of years later, as Caesar was busily conquering Gaul (58-50 BCE), he included in his war diaries (De bello Gallico) what he learned of the legendary Druidical men and women (Aldhouse-Greene 2021), Caesar 1917).

According to Caesar's diaries, Druids were priests and leaders of the Gaulish tribes, acting as judges and educators who hewed closely to the teaching of the ancient Greek philosophers Pythagoras (570-490 BCE) and Plato (ca. 429-347 BCE). Druidic trainees studied ancient Greek, and believed in the Platonic view of the world that everything in it is a pale imperfect copy of a form we cannot sense but may learn of through philosophy. Some of the other beliefs of Pythagoras and Plato followed by the Druids included reincarnation and the eternal soul; a communal lifestyle and shared possessions; the active participation of both male and female philosophers in the communities; intentionally not writing things down (except for coins, but especially not for teaching, which should be done in person); and a little human sacrifice was good for the soul (Aldhouse-Greene 2021, Webster 1999).

A hundred years after the conquest of Gaul, the Roman philosopher Pliny the elder (died 79 CE) described the Druids not as philosophers but as backwoodsmen, magicians and seers, bloodthirsty haunters of dark groves where they conducted savage rites. The Druids also practiced the irksome habit of predicting the end of the Roman empire; the Roman historian Tacitus (55-ca. 120 CE) remarked that Druids used prophecy to incite unrest. Druids during the 1st-4th century CE were sometimes banished and sometimes executed by the Romans. (Aldhouse-Green 2021, Drinkwater 1987, Webster 1999, Zhmud 2016)

How Might the Gauls Have Used the Dodecahedron

1st century CE Roman relief of a man making a sacrifice to a priestess, with a tripod cult container, a censer and a slave holding a bowl. Glyptothek of Munich. Bibi ))Saint-Pol((, public domain.
1st century CE Roman relief of a man making a sacrifice to a priestess, with a tripod cult container, a censer and a slave holding a bowl. Glyptothek of Munich. Bibi ))Saint-Pol((, public domain.


What I've read suggests that there is some scholarly agreement (more or less) that 1) Druids were alive and active in the centuries after the Gallic Wars; 2) they participated in the dominant Neo-Platonic philosophy at the time, albeit with Gallic-specific characteristics; and 3) Gallo-Roman dodecahedra were made and used by Gaulish people in some manner. There was political unrest during their manufacture and use, and Druids were feared and harassed by the Romans, which might explain why the Romans didn't know of, or write of dodecahedra. Guggenberger and Leach (2025) cite passages from several Roman writers of Late Antiquity, together which strongly suggest that the symbol of the dodecahedron was important to Neo-Platonist Gauls. The quote below from Plato's Timaeus seems to point to one way in which hollow bronze dodecahedra might have been used: as censers.

"There are and were also before heaven came into being three distinct items: being, space and becoming. As the nurse of becoming was made wet and fiery, and was receiving the shapes of earth and air, and suffering all the affections that go with them, its visual appearance varied; but as there was no homogeneity or balance in the forces that filled it, no part of it was in equilibrium, but it swayed unevenly in every direction as it was shaken by the forces, and being moved it in turn shook them. And the things that were moved were constantly being separated and carried in different directions like the contents of a winnowing basket or a similar implement for cleaning corn, in which the solid and heavy stuff is sifted out and settles on one side, the light and insubstantial on another: so at that time were the four kinds shaken by the receptacle, which itself being moved acted as a kind of shaking implement." Plato 2008, as quoted in Guggenberger and Leach 2025).

Although Timaeas was written some 500 years before the Gaulish cultists, it was translated into Latin by the first century CE, inspiring Neo-Platonism. One might put your dodecahedron on a pole or suspend it, or set it on a flat surface, plug one opening with wax, burn a little incense in it, and shake it. In this manner, vapor and mist might reproduce the creation of the universe. See Guggenberger & Leach 2025 for their additional arguments; what is here is a pale, imperfect report on their research.

Project Takeaway

Twenty-sided die (icosahedron) carved from serpentine, with faces inscribed with Greek letters. 2nd century B.C.–4th century A.D. The Met, public domain
Twenty-sided die (icosahedron) carved from serpentine, with faces inscribed with Greek letters.Ptolemaic era Egypt, 2nd century B.C.–4th century A.D. The Met, public domain

I suspect that the original use of the five convex polyhedra was as gambling dice, because, after all, gambling and philosophy are closely related. But in the end, what do Gallo-Roman dodecahedra have to do with our archaeo-astronomical study Staring into Space? Tangentially, maybe: they have twelve sides, which might be thought to reference the zodiac or the solar/lunar calendar. Definitely the dodecahedron as astronomical measurer isn't feasible; the hole sizes vary too much. But, the concept is decidedly an example of earthly inhabitants wrestling with making sense of their world by accessing otherworldly objects. But, if was just an interesting rabbit hole to jump into, I'm okay with that.

Image Credits

  1. Gallo-Roman Dodecahedron, Bronze (copper alloy), 1st to 4th century AD. The Hunt Collection. Public Domain.
  2. Map of the Roman Empire during the crisis of the 3rd century CE, including the Gallic Empire. Doll91939, CC 4.0
  3. Gallo-Roman dodecahedron, provenance unknown, said to be from Lyon. 78 mm. Musée gallo-romain de Fourvière à Lyon. Gloumouth1, CC 3.0
  4. Stone head from Mšecké Žehrovice (Rakovník district, Czech Republic) found in 1943. Made of cretaceous limestone (marl). La Tène culture. Probably the head of a Druid, perhaps to honor the prominent ancestor of the local community. It was deposited in the pit (as a ritual funeral) about 100 BC. Displayed in The Celts, an exhibition in the National Museum in Prague. CC 4.0, Zde
  5. Gallo-Roman dodecahedron fragment, 2rd century, Musée de l'Arles antique. Rama, public domain
  6. Dungeons & Dragon dice in the shape of the five Platonic Solids. Starting on the left hand side is tetrahedron (4 triangular faces and representing fire in its purest form), cube (six square faces for earth), octahedron (eight triangular faces for air or ether), dodecahedron (12 pentagonal faces for the universe), and isocahedron (20 triangular faces for water). Woody Thrower, CC 2.0
  7. 1st century CE Roman relief of a man making a sacrifice to a priestess, with a tripod cult container, a censer and a slave holding a bowl. Glyptothek of Munich. Bibi Saint-Pol, public domain.
  8. Twenty-sided die (icosahedron) carved from serpentine, with faces inscribed with Greek letters. Ptolemaic era Egypt, 2nd century B.C.–4th century A.D. The Met, public domain.

Suggested Websites

All were working on 29 Jun 26.

Selected References

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This article is part of the Staring into Space project.
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